Found inside – Page 165... in that portion of Poland which play an important part in the development Austria appropriated , were subordinated by of Poland's natural resources . The country is rich in minerals and is an important producer of coal, copper, zinc, construction minerals and others. subsidized, and medical services were free. At the end of 1991, unemployment employed in manufacturing, mining, and construction; 25.7 percent in It also has strength advising on regulatory and trading issues, which includes assistance with negotiating agreements and handling the . Particle fragments - an overlooked hazard of oil and gas exploration. <>/ExtGState<>/XObject<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageB/ImageC/ImageI] >>/MediaBox[ 0 0 595.32 841.92] /Contents 4 0 R/Group<>/Tabs/S/StructParents 0>> The first one was opened in Pyrzyce near Szczecin in 1997. Natural resources in Ukraine, often said to be unique for their variety, size and potential for exploration, can be divided into three groups: energy resources, metal ores and nonmetallic. Crops are distributed according to the substantial regional variations plains are most suitable for rye, the richer soil in the south favors Weglokoks is the largest coal exporting company in the country and is responsible for around half of all the country's coke and coal exports. Natural Resources The natural resources that Poland mainly relies on include hard and brown coal, copper, sulfur, zinc, lead, silver, magnesium, and rock salt. Optimistic assumptions hold that by 2030 wind power plants will have 6000-9000 MW of installed power, producing 10 TW of energy a year. CanmetENERGY-Devon. endobj nonmetallic export mineral. This Brown coal is utilized almost exclusively by the energy industry, with 98 percent used by large power plants. In 1992 two nationwide labor unions existed. In spite of considerable overstaffing in both production and Wood was the fastest grower among the top 10 export categories, up by 59.5% from 2019 to 2020. The biggest oil deposits are BMB and Cychry, also in the Polish Lowland. Most active in the field of hydrocarbons exploration in Poland are the Americans. Poland makes most of their money on having these resources. Now a mere 15% of their energy is used. Natural Resources: coal, sulfur, copper, natural gas, silver, lead, salt, amber, . The production techniques in Ciechocinek have not changed for 120 years. Definition: Total natural resources rents are the sum of oil rents, natural gas rents, coal rents (hard and soft), mineral rents, and forest rents. At the end of 1991, about 30.7 percent of Poland's estimated In 2018, the UN International Maritime Organization set a goal to cut the... Decarbonization in the Shipping Industry: 2021 Outlook. The richest deposit is Mozdzanowo, where a variety of colours and shades can be found, including some 60 percent of transparent amber. and politics ended in 1989, however, industrial policy makers In 1981 a mine was opened here, which supplies the Belchatow power plant. New research from comparethemarket.com.au indicates what else could be powered with... EIFFEL TOWER LIGHTS COULD BREW 14,000 CUPS OF COFFEE. 1970s. In the north, Poland reaches the Baltic Sea with its beautiful sandy beaches and busy harbors. . The Polish Lowland natural gas is found mainly in Permian and Carboniferous rocks and has a high content of nitrogen. Web Resources. Our team of energy specialists help clients to adapt to regulatory reforms, rethink their strategies, optimise efficiencies across the value chain and find new agile ways to tackle emerging challenges. The largest coal deposits are located in Upper Silesia in the. three decades. Emily Heaslip Poland's biggest brown-coal power plant is Belchatow in the south of the Lodz province. Found inside – Page 14Natural Resources and Environmental Issues Silesia and the Polish Uplands contain most of the country's mineral wealth . Poland's chief natural resource is ... however, rents were low, electricity, gas, and fuels remained partly Although most of Poland's territory is lowland, the country has amazing and versatile natural environment. decade of communist rule. Sustainable Management of Natural Resources Poland's growth will need resources, and the sustainable management of natural resources, including water and air quality management, is critical for. In 2019, 61% of Poland's crude oil imports came from Russia, which is less than both the 10-year average (86%) and 5-year average (80%). %���� The Lublin region of eastern Poland was In the 14th century capital companies known as gwarectwa appeared in Poland to mine precious metals on royal charter. exploited in the 1980s as part of an expansion program to supplement as the result of the reform policies of the postcommunist governments a. iron ore, petroleum, and scenic coastal areas b. vast stands of forests with valuable timber c. coal, sulfur, copper, and open fields with fertile soil d. clean water supplies and huge, untapped deposits of gold In 1980 total The most Until the late 1980s coal mining was considered to be a national industry and miners enjoyed great respect and prestige. It is among the world's biggest producers of hard and brown coal, copper, zinc, lead, sulphur, rock salt and construction minerals. 3 0 obj For countries where volcanic activity is common, a volcanism subfield highlights historically active volcanoes. Natural hazards: flooding . That period also saw the emergence of the miner as a distinct occupation. insurance system, and some retraining were introduced in early 1990. The Petrobaltic company, which holds a prospecting licence for 8,600 sq km of the shelf, has discovered the B3 deposit, situated 80km off the Rozewie Cape, and has started to exploit it. In the Middle Ages mining rock salt in Bochnia and Wieliczka near Cracow was an important industry. million had a basic trade education. Poland has many natural resources. Source: . Related Articles. administrative units, labor shortages were a perennial problem in other Poland has limited deposits of some nonferrous metal ores. The Baltic states are more or less poor in natural resources, though Latvia has begun to take advantage of its hydro-power potential. Materiály nesmí být dále publikovány, vysílány, přepisovány nebo redistribuovány As a result of post-war border shifts, Poland lost most of its resources of oil and natural gas, while gaining rich deposits of coal in Upper and Lower Silesia. Of the 242 documented deposits of natural gas in Poland, the biggest are: Przemysl in the Carpathian Foreland (nearly 21 bcm); Koscian (south-east of Poznan; 10.4 bcm), exploited only since 1999; and BMB. There's more to spring water than meets the eye. It is the biggest and one of the most advanced opencast mines in the world. After the First World War, East Podkarpacie became a centre of natural gas mining. Poland's natural resources include _____. G�fycj��7�gTXER��"fB�Vo ��,���%��e�b%�fq��a����^��q��!�D7�݊�K-�`¤�-(� �&c`�I�`���c�X��ɭ�F���i��->�f����XN��R���ӸqW�r��]6d�#��zޡQ�� ����u��!X@���oѾdI��g�8�����t{eNE*�F���y��5� ��j�؍L�D��v�\�4�Ll��M|a*Y�&{�����~j��Hsڌ�,&5��+���Z� �E�+"-S! Today the Baltic oil accounts for about half of Poland's oil production. Salt is and efforts to achieve reform that finally thrust it into a central Turkey is a net importer of oil & gas with potential prospects in the Thrace basin, offshore Mediterranean and Black Sea. The largest amounts of amber, often called Baltic gold, were found at the mouth of the Vistula and on the Sambia Peninsula (now in Russia's Kaliningrad Region). Minerals and FuelsCoal is Poland's most important mineral resource. Zinc-lead ores are located in Malopolska, near Olkusz - one of the country's oldest mining centres, which developed by exploiting its lead and silver deposits until the 16th century when it began to decline - as well as near Boleslaw and Chrzanow. We support clients in all aspects of their business . originally established by the communist government after the suppression Of this 0.6% ( 54,000 ) is classified as primary forest, the most biodiverse and carbon-dense form of forest. extracted in two ways: by removing it in solid form and by dissolving it Enviweb.cz využívá zpravodajství ČTK, jehož obsah je chráněn autorským zákonem. On the other hand, Polish geologists, geophysicists and oil engineers have not said their last word yet. ISSN: 1803-6686 The annual output of lead and zinc ores was about 5 In 1854 Ignacy Lukasiewicz drilled the world's first oil well in Bobrka near Krosno. Brown coal is the cheapest fuel used in the energy industry. The National Coalition of Labor Unions, It is also possible to utilize solar energy by constructing solar collectors. Another deposit, B8, will be soon ready for exploitation. Salt mining, which began in the Middle Ages, was Hot water (64*C) rises from a depth of 1700m. tons in 1990. Eastern Europe's largest producer of food, Poland based its sizeable and varied industrial sector on ample coal supplies that made it the world's fourth largest coal producer in the 1970s. south-central region make that material Poland's most important In 2019, Poland consumed about 670,000 barrels per day (b/d) of petroleum and other liquids. Production expanded in the #1 of 10 Top Spring Water Brands of 2017 - When Tibet 5100 was founded over 10 years, they wanted to create a product that would surpass the quality of the vast majority of bottled water brands, and they succeeded. Other important natural resources include amber, salt and arable land. Population remained constant, while GDP increased by a factor of more than (Figure 1). Poland remained heavily dependent on the Soviet Union for Poland Natural Resources: Poland has fuel deposits, some of which are coal and natural gas. Today much effort is made to increase the amount of hydroenergy produced in Poland. Poland is a country rich in minerals. Found inside – Page 51NATURAL RESOURCES AND AGRICULTURE Poland is relatively well endowed with mineral resources.It is one of the world's leading producers and exporters of hard ... In 1988 about 1.8 million people had a postsecondary International Energy Agency Calls For A Ban On All New Oil And Gas Projects And Sets Other Radical New Targets In Its "Net Zero By 2050" Report. Factbook > Countries > Poland > Geography. Poland is blessed with substantial coal reserves, as well as natural gas, iron ore and copper reserves, as well as some limited supplies of silver (and has historically been a target of larger powers for this . world's fifth-largest deposits of lead and zinc (which occur in With the current annual production of 102 million tons (in 2000), they will suffice to meet the country's demand for almost 500 years, that is twice as long as the world's average. Weglokoks is the largest coal exporting company in the country and is responsible for around half of all the country's coke and coal exports. x��=َ$�q��?�c���M�I�z�dH��A?,V�����ޕa�_�`Df�y�ղ��"3IF�f��O����Ç����Wχ��_�����_���x��p���t�������) ��B����M���޿��/_߿�����o^�!w9>���;��?��K�Ʉ.����]��4~�&>�H�ĭ_���������������޿;����p��#��2��B���!��.�a*_N�N�D��6�>��ă1�3��� �r��=R�W����9�@��>�.�|&��f�&u㒶w]2��>Ԓ�^���ps��p?쌅������\���>|��0�7��C���~~|���೷�ʏ����\�a�o�{W&yz0>�˃�x5�O�%��6��ƻ�#--��~i ��;)H2���`aiu�dO���._�c���M��2�Ⱥi�~�Ś��W��_��MA�J�6USŠ��@H��(�R!�b5��&�~>� x�n,��M� ��2q��C�BΔ?�o����Y�\�D���h�:{�D�",\[�Ѕ��KG Εhžܘ�Ƹ.��rw��f��i�. significant is copper, which is extracted in large quantities at ten The All Top-class equipment and cutting-edge exploration techniques including 3-D seismography make it possible to discover gas in areas that were once believed to contain no hydrocarbons. Today Poland remains a major supplier of this material, with its resources estimated at 12,000 tons. Poland also has immense deposits of sulphur and is one of the biggest exporters of it. Major Environmental and Conservation Issues: Since 1989, the environmental situation has improved, because of a decline in heavy industry, as well as increased environmental concern from post-communist governments. <> Introduction : social movements and natural resources / John F. Devlin -- Peasant collective action against disembedding land : the case of Niassa Province, Mozambique / Kajsa Johansson -- Negotiating pipeline projects and ... In 1998 the resources grew by 14% when the Glogow Gleboki deposit, situated at more than 1400m underground, was discovered. Found inside – Page 103... other things the development of agriculture , the food programme , the health of Poland's community , Poland's natural resources and their effective use ... Origin of the name Poland: The name "Poland" comes from an early West Slavic tribe called the Polans or Polanie. So, let's have a look at the best places to visit in Poland. political role in 1989. deposits, generally of high quality and easily accessible, accounted for Its present borders were set after World War II ended in 1945. The significance of this region grew even more in 1996 with the finding of the Barnowko-Mostno-Buszewo (BMB) deposit near Gorzow Wielkopolski. It was a much valued material at that time and played a major role in barter trade with the Meditterranean. However, its strategic position in relation to Asia and Africa, as well as navigable rivers and fertile soil, have made Europe a dominant economic, social, and cultural force throughout recorded history. FAOLEX: Poland external link (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) database of national laws and regulations on food, agriculture, and renewable natural resources. It is almost certain to be as big as BMB, if not bigger. Poland's rapid postwar industrialization was supported by a 100,000 or more. Its principal mineral asset is bituminous coal, although brown coal is mined as well. areas of the economy. The deposits located in three areas of the Carpathian Depression - Staszow, Tarnobrzeg and Lubaczow - are among the richest in the world (504 million tons). The major elements involved are oceanic air masses from the west, cold polar air from Scandinavia or Russia, and warmer, subtropical air from the south. are located in Upper Silesia in the southwestern part of the country, We aimed to determine density of cavity resources in coniferous spruce-pine (Pinus/Picea genera) stands of the Białowieża Forest, Poland, and to correlate their presence with tree species composition, and characteristics of trees and stands (condition, DBH, basal area). There is only one mine here, called Bogdanka, but it is the most modern and profitable mine in the country. electricity, despite its very damaging effect on the environment. The biggest resources of metals in Poland are those of copper, zinc and lead. Curiously, new and promising deposits have been recently discovered in the Lublin Upland. relatively poor, geologically difficult, and very expensive field ended contemplated major changes in the balance of resource consumption. Nearly all of its generated electricity (around 92-94%) comes from coal-fired power plants fueled principally by hard coal and lignite. order, national defense, and public administration. The electric energy produced by wind power plants is estimated to account for some 0.002% of the country's total production. About 12 million workers, or 70 percent of the work Nature has bestowed Poland generously with both non-renewable and renewable resources. POPULAR ARTICLES ON: Energy and Natural Resources from Poland. parts of Poland favor potato cultivation; sugar beets, the most Origin of the name Poland: The name "Poland" comes from an early West Slavic tribe called the Polans or Polanie. In Poland there is a lack of separate sustainable development strategy of the nation, nevertheless there are numerous strategic documents defining - in a long-term perspective - socio-economic aims . Mines are situated next to power plants with which they typically constitute one economic entity. About 3 million tons of sulfuric acid, along with several Oil oozed out of the ground and gathered on sandstone outcrops, stream banks or water surface in a wide belt along the northern rim of the Carpathians. In Poland there is a lack of separate sustainable development strategy of the nation, nevertheless there are numerous strategic documents defining - in a long-term perspective - socio-economic aims . Urgent break with fast fashion needed in upcoming EU textile laws. Brown coal is mined as well. Poland is a country rich in minerals. Quite remarkably, Poland's growth has been based on brain power, entrepreneurship, and hard work, not on natural resources or financial steroids. Poland is a country rich in minerals. Nature has bestowed Poland generously with natural resources and is a country rich in minerals. agriculture, forestry, and fishing; and 7.1 percent in transport and thereof, but beyond the territorial sea, over which Poland exercises Sovereign rights, in accordance with international law, for the purpose of exploration for and exploitation of the natural resources of such areas, but only to the extent that the person, property, or activity to which this Convention is being applied is The rivers with the greatest potential are the Vistula (80%) and the Odra (10%). The country is a meeting place not only for cultures and ideas, but also for conflict and confrontation. Found inside – Page 9ECONOMICS Thus far Poland can be characterized as a country of missed economic ... advantage . considerable natural resources ( coal , electrolytic copper ... Coal is currently mined in Silesia in 41 mines. Coal is Poland's most important mineral resource. Coal seams stretch from the Polish-Ukrainian border to Radzyn Podlaski. We support clients in all aspects of their business . wide natural resource base including major deposits of oil, natural gas, coal, and many strategic minerals, reserves of rare earth elements, timber: Rwanda: gold, cassiterite (tin ore), wolframite (tungsten ore), methane, hydropower, arable land: Saint Barthelemy: has few natural resources, its beaches being the most important: Saint Helena . ERDOS, China (Reuters) - With oil prices at historic highs, China is moving full steam ahead with a... China builds plant to turn coal into barrels of oil. production covered 43 percent of the country's total requirement. Poland's largest natural resources are coal, sulfur, cooper, natural gas, silver, lead, salt and amber. tons annually. of iron ore was the district of Czestochowa; but output there declined where large-scale mining began in the nineteenth century. The IPCC report published earlier this... Methane: Short-term gains vs long-term pains. Poland Economy 1991 - Flags, Maps, Economy, Geography, Climate, Natural Resources, Current Issues, International Agreements, Population, Social Statistics, Political . It became a Soviet satellite state following the war. Více informací o ochraně osobních údajů a jejich používání, zpravodajství životního prostředí již od roku 1999. low-quality fuel has been used on a large scale for the production of By 2005 all of Podhale will be heated in this way. Coal is mined here from 100 to 230m below the ground level. country depended on iron imports from the Soviet Union and Sweden to In 1989 nearly 22 million Poles were of working age: 11.3 million men In the 20th century about 500 large and medium power plants were built, as were numerous waterwheels that drive mills, sawmills and fulling mills. other chemicals, are produced each year. In the mid 18th century coal mining became prominent. Apache Poland holds more licences than any other foreign prospector and has the largest seismic base. The deposits are located in two Lower Silesia geological units: the North Sudetian Basin (Niecka Polnocnosudecka) and the Sudetian Monocline (Monoklina Przedsudecka). Landscape Poland is a relatively low-lying country with 91% of its territory lying below 300 m above sea level. tax on wages that exceeded prescribed levels. In 1990 annual copper ore output was about 26 million tons, and Its reserves are estimated at nearly 14 billion tons. the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), which were Poland's most support the rapid expansion of the steel industry that was a high Copper is extracted from sulphide ores found in Zechstein deposits, Europe's biggest and some of the biggest in the world. sustainable management of world natural resources in order to guarantee sustainable development. Mineral resources for this country include sulfur, copper, silver and lead. These resources will suffice until 2020-2030. The largest coal deposits major grains, several industrial crops, and several varieties of fruit. Biofouling has plagued the marine shipping industry for decades, if not centuries.... What is Biofouling and How Can We Stop It? Renewable resources do not contribute significantly to Poland's economy but this contribution is bound to grow like in other European countries. This book is dedicated to academics, engineers, and students involved in environmental engineering, who are following the advances in the research on environmental aspects of energy production and waste management. Poland is the biggest hard coal producer in the EU. This Graphic Helps You Identify Your Home Biggest Energy Costs. In 1990 about 76 percent of Poland's zinc and The latter, such as wind and solar energy, are used more and more frequently, their growing popularity supported by great advances in technology. Salty air with a great amount of iodine makes you feel like on the Baltic coast, although the sea is about 200km from here. The people in the region then became known as the Poles over the course of time. As the world continues to transition from using fossil fuels to cleaner energy sources, the... UNTAPPED RENEWABLE ENERGY - WHO HAS THE MOST POTENTIAL? The mines were royal property and under the Piasts and Jagiellons provided one-third of the state's income. generally were low in the first reform years. This year, we expect marine shipping companies to reevaluate and reconfigure shipping... 7 Tools for Selecting Better Shipping Routes. Shell is now ready to start construction Floating Liquefied Natural Gas (FLNG)... Today marks one year until the biggest civic action in the world - World Cleanup Day. Copper, natural gas, coal and petroleum are among the many natural resources of Europe. Wages Found insideThe natural resources of national parks are counted among Poland's strategic natural resources pursuant to Article 1 of the Act of 6 July 2001 on ... But before we dive in too deep, let's start with the basics. Discovered in 1960, its deposits were estimated at 2 billion tons. As the Carpathian deposits have been largely used up and many of them are being closed down, now most of the country's oil and natural gas comes from the Polish Lowland. In 1980 total reserves were estimated at 130 billion tons. This is also one of the most valuable archeological sites in Europe. Found inside – Page 43Modify regulations and governance of natural resources in order to assure ... The Baltics , Poland , and Belarus In the Baltics our role is likely to ... This book takes an interdisciplinary look at environmental protection during Poland’s transition to market democracy. Iceland and Norway are both good sources of fish due to their locations. Unemployment benefits, an unemployment The brand only collects water from a single source, and that source has been protected by the Tibetan mountains for generations. The only work carried out there is for protecting the old chambers. The largest coal deposits are located in Upper Silesia in the . So far, four gas-condensate deposits have been discovered, estimated at 10 bcm. It has fertile land for crops such as potatoes, wheat, fruits and a variety of vegetables. had reached 11.4 percent. Found insideCHAPTER XII — POLAND'S NATURAL RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES THE economic progress of new Poland in a few short years has been truly remarkable for she now ranks ... Flagstaff Lake, ME. The richest deposits are located in Upper and Lower Silesia, on the outskirts of the Swietokrzyskie Mountains and in the Lublin Upland. Poland Forest Information and Data. Key Icons in this series are as follows: Words to Understand are shown at the front of each chapter with definitions. Change in Forest Cover: Between 1990 and 2010, Poland lost an . This investment will allow Poland to accept delivery of between 4.1 and 8.2 billion Nm3 of liquefied natural gas per year to Poland. and the rural working class to shrink proportionately in the first According to the U.N. FAO, 30.5% or about 9,337,000 ha of Poland is forested, according to FAO. Fifty years after the adoption of the Declaration on Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources by the General Assembly of the United Nations in December 1962, this volume assesses the evolution of the principle of permanent sovereignty ... Poland defined four general resource categories in the ESES and three of them concern material resources. Although it accounts for only 0.4% and 0.8% of the Earth's land surface and world's population respectively, the country has approximately 5% of the world's mineral resources. Natural gas is extracted mostly in Upper Silesia, Lower Silesia, and Poland has many natural resources. Most of Poland natural resources are fossil fuels. The resources are estimated at 2.5 billion tons of ore, including 49 million tons of metallic copper. © 1999-2021 Enviweb s.r.o. important trading partners in Comecon. Poland Table of Contents. Silesian combination of readily available natural resources, especially Poland is a country that owns important natural resources, both renewable and non-renewable. Found inside – Page 16Currently, the Ministry of Environmental Protection, Natural Resources and Forestry is responsible for the water framework directive in Poland (i.e., ... %PDF-1.7 Poland's borders have changed many times over the centuries. There are actually three separate fields: Belchatow, Szczercow and Kamiensk. Poland: Major Natural Resources: Coal, sulfur, copper, natural gas, silver, lead, salt, forest. The so called "mineral resources base" was in 90% built in the USSR based on the existing research methodology. Europe: Resources. reserves were estimated at 130 billion tons. POLAND'S ECONOMIC GROWTH was favored by relatively rich natural resources for both agriculture and industry. Renewable resources force, worked in the state sector in 1990. The Solidarity labor Deposits of oil and natural gas have been discovered in the Carpathians, Carpathian Foreland (the Carpathian Depression), Sudetian Monocline and Pomerania. In 1991 the average In Poland, the cost of producing 1 GJ of energy from it is three times lower than for hard coal, six times lower than for natural gas and over eight times lower than for heating oil. Poland Energy and Natural Resources Energy Law Utilities. Presents information on the geography and climate, history, natural resources, economy, customs, and people of Poland, focusing on change in recent years. endobj A major offshore oilfield was discovered in the Baltic Sea in 1985. Copper ore is mined only in the Legnica-Glogow Copper District by KGHM Polska Miedz SA, Poland's sole producer of copper from primary materials. supported large-scale operations in three mines yielding about 5 million And every day is a different adventure out in the woods. In the north, Poland reaches the Baltic Sea with its beautiful sandy beaches and busy harbors. Found inside – Page 40The Polish draft stipulated that the underdeveloped countries have the full right to determine freely the use of their natural resources and referred to ... Poland's rapid postwar industrialization was supported by a combination of readily available natural resources, especially economically important minerals. Engineers at the Chongqing University of Technology have developed a bracelet that can... Bracelet generates power from natural movement. Poland is located at the heart of the European continent. In fact, they will suffice for much longer as coal is being replaced in Polish economy with environment-friendly natural gas. The resources of the already exploited deposits - Lubin, Polkowice, Rudna and Sieroszowice - are 1.5 billion tons of ore, including some 30 million tons of metallic copper. Exploration and exploitation of oil and gas deposits in Poland requires a licence granted by the Ministry of Environment. This book presents research on the possibilities of creating progress in the processing of renewable resources within the study of biotechnology. Some of those natural treasures are unique and cannot be found anywhere else in the world. called for gradual reduction of lignite extraction and use in the 1990s. Poland also has significant quantities of lignite in the district of The deposits are located in eight regions, mainly in central Poland (coalfields at Konin, Belchatow and in Wielkopolska) and in its western part (at Turoszow on the Polish side of the Lusatian Neisse). Including that field and the older fields in the Carpathian Mountains in This is precious heritage which we should all care for and protect. Rich deposits of salt provide an important raw material for the Found inside – Page 43POLAND . EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Poland is the largest country in Eastern Europe and has abundant natural resources , including coal , copper and sulphur .

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